12.WESTERN MONASTICISM

We know little about the origins of Christianity in Gaul, except for the Church of Lyons which has left a famous account of the death of its martyrs in the persecution of 177.

Up to the middle of the fourth century Christians were a minority in the population of Gaul. At the end of the century, Christianity made notable progress, first of all in the towns and then in the countryside. It was in this context of progress that there began in Gaul a strong religious life in which the ideal of asceticism started to develop.
Thus it was that from the beginning of the fifth century there appeared 'virgins dedicated to God'; very likely they lived out their consecration within their families. Moreover fervent Christians who wanted to follow Christ more closely left the good things of the world to live a life of asceticism in food and clothing; they devoted themselves to reading the Scriptures and to liturgical prayer. They were called "saints" or 'turned towards God' or 'the chaste ones'. This was one of the forerunners of monastic life. This latter seems to have begun very early in Gaul because we know about the existence of a group of hermits in the Ile-Barbe, near Lyons, from the year 250, that is, a year before the birth of Antony. Later on, the influence of Egyptian monasticism would make itself felt among the ascetics of Gaul; they would make a wise blend of their way of life and that of the Egyptians.

The first monastic generation in Gaul is marked by the outstanding personality of Saint Martin who was born into a pagan family. The grace of God was at work among the pagans.

1. SAINT MARTIN

We know about St Martin from the 'Life of Martin' by Sulpicius Severus, probably a romanticised 'life'. The date of Martin's birth is disputed; it was either in 315 or 336. Antony was then 54 or 85 years old. He was born in Sabria, in Pannonia, (present-day Hungary), where his father, a military tribune and a pagan was on garrison duty before being sent to Pavia in Italy. It was there that Martin was brought up and probably met Christianity. His father wanted him to become a soldier like himself and enter the army; Martin did so reluctantly, his biographer assures us, for he was already a follower of Christ. He was at Amiens when, in mid-winter, he shared his cloak with a poor man who was very cold. Legend tells us that this poor man was Jesus. Martin, who was then a catechumen, was baptised at Easter 354. Two years later, in 356, he left the army, and went to his parents, converting his mother but not his father. It is possible that he met Hilary of Poitiers about 356. Between 357 and 360 he may have had some experience of the ascetic life in Italy. It is certain that after Hilary's return from exile (360) he founded a monastery at Ligugé, near Poitiers. There he lived the life of a monk for 10 years and attracted disciples.

But in 371 he was elected bishop of Tours. He wanted to remain a monk and built himself a wooden cell outside the cathedral. Disciples gathered round him, and then he founded the monastery of Marmoutiers, which means 'the great monastery'. It was in fact a group of hermitages rather than a large monastery. Life at Marmoutiers was poor, with community of goods, a fairly flexible cenobitic life compared to the Pachomians - the sons of Gallo-roman families were not like the young Egyptian peasants; much time was given to contemplation, to the extent that there was no official work apart from copying books. Marmoutiers was thus the forerunner of the medieval monasteries with their workshops for copying manuscripts.

We have no personal document from Martin on his interior life. It is not easy to form an idea of his spirituality from the apologetic biography of Sulpicius Severus. It seems that Martin's chief characteristic was that he remained a soldier. In his community he insisted on obedience. For him the monk was the successor of the martyrs and he must demonstrate this by his patience and humility in following Christ. As a soldier, he must engage in combat against the devil. An interior combat, certainly, for like Antony Martin was visited by the devil; but also an exterior combat in the destruction of pagan sanctuaries, for he believed that paganism was the work of the devil, and in healing those who were possessed. Finally. Martin was a pastor formed by Hilary. His spirituality, both active and exacting, was pastorally oriented; his asceticism was subordinated to preaching the Word.

Like Pachomius, Martin was an outstanding personality, a charismatic abba. But, again like Pachomius, he did not give a sufficient theological and spiritual foundation to his monasticism. Even in his lifetime there were arguments within his monastery and at his death, in 397, it seems that everything collapsed. Of the many monks whom Sulpicius Severus shows us mourning his death, how many were still there a few years later?

2. SULPICIUS SEVERUS

Among the fervent Christians mentioned above, two made their mark on their times. Two friends from the Gallo-roman aristocracy took up the ascetic life: Paulinus of Nola and Sulpicius Severus.

The latter, who would be St Martin's biographer, was born about 360 at Bordeaux. He studied there, and became friends with Paulinus. He married a young girl from a rich family, but his wife died very young. This was a great blow for him; he sold his possessions, keeping only two small properties at Primuliac in order to live a monastic life there. This was monastic life in the tradition of Martin, with probably many traits characteristic of life in a Gallo-roman villa, where the rich owner was surrounded by his family and dependents. Sulpicius spent his time in writing The Life of Saint Martin and The Sacred History. Monastic life was quite relaxed; solitude was fairly lax, since many people came to see the writer who had kept up many friendships outside. We know that he was still living in 404, because Paulinus wrote to him, but we know nothing about the last years of Sulpicius Severus.

3. PAULINUS OF NOLA

The dates of Paulinus' birth and death are exactly the same as those of Augustine, 354-430. He also was born at Bordeaux of a very rich family, where Christian life was a matter of routine. After his studies, Paulinus began his career as consul and then governor of Campania, in present-day Italy. There, at Nola, he was struck by the miracles which occurred at the tomb of St Felix and his heart was opened to the light of Christ, as he would write later. He married a devout Spanish woman who bore him a son who died very young. Shortly after his baptism, Paulinus and his wife retired to a desert place in Spain. Paulinus planned to return to Nola, and the bishop of Barcelona ordained him priest, perhaps to keep him in Spain. But he persevered in his plans and went back to Nola where he and his wife lived for 35 years, near the tomb of St Felix. Two small communities, one of men and one of women, grew up around them. Paulinus became a bishop. He was a lovable character and kept up a correspondence with Jerome, Rufinus and Augustine. He was neither a theologian nor an exegete, but his writings manifest his spiritual experience. He led a monastic life similar to that of the bishop of Hippo, linked to clerical life; the head of the monastery was also the bishop of the city.

4. THE FATHERS OF THE JURA

In the Jura mountains, CONDAT, (now Saint-Claude) was founded by Romanus in 435. The 'Life of the Fathers of the Jura' shows us the birth and development of a community as well as the evolution of its institutions during the life of three abbots: Romanus, Lupicinus and Oyend.

Romanus owned a large property in the Jura. He was educated first at Lyons. started living alone beneath a huge fir tree, where two streams met (meeting = Condat). When disciples joined him, he moved to a flatter and more cultivable place. He was ordained priest in 444. Romanus was calm and modest, compassionate and welcoming. His spiritual teaching was to remain pure, without any knowledge of evil.

His brother Lupicinus succeeded him, a totally different character; he was austere, strong, a strict disciplinarian, severe towards the proud and stubborn, but a good teacher and a good man. As a result novices abounded and he had to found another monastery, Loconne. He died there about 480.

The sister of Romanus and Lupicinus founded a monastery of nuns at La Balme.

After Lupicinus, Oyend perfected the existing rule, about the year 500. He introduced reading in the refectory and a communal dormitory. His reform is presented as an adaptation of Eastern rules, particularly Pachomian rules, to the character of the Gauls, "according to the climate of the country and to the demands of work".

An interesting point - monasticism is seen as a gift to the Church under the inspiration of the Divine Word (12).

An urban monasticism also developed in many towns in Gaul: Rouen, Toulouse, Auxerre, Vienne and Dijon.

1. MARSEILLES

As a commercial port, open to influences from abroad, Marseilles was home to monks from very early times. About the year 400 Paulinus of Nola was writing of a 'brotherhood' there. Ten years later Jerome was writing to one of its inhabitants who wanted to enter religious life. He told him to speak to the bishop, Proculus. Marseilles was therefore ready to receive John Cassian and his teaching.

We have studied Cassian and have seen his influence over Benedict. Though Cassian did not bring monasticism into Gaul, he gave it his monastic teaching through his writings, which he dedicated to the bishops of Gaul. These conferences were widely read and brought to monastic life in Gaul a body of doctrine which it lacked.

Cassian probably founded two monasteries at Marseilles, one for men (St Victor), and the other for women (Saint-Sauveur). The monastery of Lerins was already in existence.

2. LERINS

This monastery of Lerins, the heart of a very important monastic centre at that time, had been founded about 410. With Ligugé, it is certainly the oldest of present-day monasteries where there have always been monks.

Several notable people have made it famous.

Hilary was noted for his great generosity. He died in 449, aged 48.

A little later:

When he became ill, he was sent for treatment to Arles. There he was ordained deacon and then priest and was sent as abbot to the monastery of Trinquetaille. He then became bishop of Arles where he founded the monastery of Saint John for nuns. He then drew up a rule for this monastery, the first edition drew on the 'eastern' rules, the second on Augustine. Towards the end of his life he drew up a Rule for monks which is a summary of his great Rule for virgins.

We give here a table of the monastic writings of Cesarius, and in Book 2 some texts from the Rule for Virgins.

We can see the importance of monasticism in Provence. In later ages, Lerins would play the same 'mythical' role in the West as did Egypt in the fourth and fifth centuries.

In the Iberian peninsula (Spain, as a political entity, barely dates from the VII century), monasticism also developed as an institution. Already in about the year 400, the nun Egeria who came from southern Gaul or perhaps from Galicia, told in picturesque detail of her journey to Jerusalem. It is not surprising that this Iberian monasticism was also directly inspired in the first place by Eastern monasticism, as was the monasticism of Provence.

The most well-known person of the period we are studying is another Martin, bishop of Braga. Born, like Martin of Tours, in Pannonia into a family of important civil servants, he received a first-class education. For a long time he lived in the East, in Palestine, and it was there he felt called by God and became a priest. Later he arrived in Galicia by sea; there he made a translation of the Apophthegmata and established a monastery at Dumio, near Braga, about 556. In 570 he was metropolitan of Braga, and like Martin of Tours, to whom he had a great devotion, he set up an episcopal monastery there. He died in Braga sometime after 579. His life as a bishop was dedicated to leading the Arian Suevi to the Catholic faith. Further east, St Emilian established a monastery at Asan, in Aragon.

In the south of the peninsula, another influence was at work, that of the Rule of St Augustine, brought from Africa by the monks fleeing from the Vandal invasions. An abbot and 70 monks arrived in the region of Valencia bringing their library with them.

In the following century monasticism in various forms continued to spread. The outstanding names are: Leander and Isidore of Seville, Fructuosus of Braga, and Valerius of Bierzo.

1. THEIR ORIGIN

A characteristic of Gallic monasticism is the proliferation of Rules; the codex of Benedict of Aniane contains 25, but these are only the ones that survived; there were certainly more than that.

This phenomenon comes from the fact that many monasteries owed their foundation to charismatic figures, similar to the Desert Fathers and Pachomius. These men gathered disciples round them, and as they grew in number, rules became necessary. Each monastery worked out its own rule, drawing inspiration from previous documents. As well as this, several bishops thought it a good idea to write rules themselves for monks living under their jurisdiction.

After St Benedict and St Columban, only the rules of these two founders of Orders tended to dominate. Sometimes a legislator made one document out of the two. After the time of Benedict of Aniane, the Benedictine Rule alone remained.

In Book 2 we give some excerpts from the Gallic rules, chosen from the most interesting. Others will be found in the Study Paper: "The Gallic Rules and Benedict". In Book 2 you will find as well Table 10 which indicates their origin, their characteristics and their style. Have a look also at Tables 4 & 5 illustrating chapter 4: "Monastic Rules".

2. THEIR SPIRITUALITY

Except for the Rule for Virgins of Cesarius, which is important as the first Rule for nuns which has come down to us, the teaching in these rules is not deep; there is hardly any theology or spirituality behind the regulations. They are documents born of experience, based on the the old Rules, especially the two Mother-Rules of Pachomius and Augustine.

In all of them murmuring is denounced and patience and putting up with injuries is recommended.

Separation from the world, a traditional characteristic of monasticism, is only mentioned as essential in Cesarius. Elsewhere it is taken for granted.

Sometimes one has a glimpse that the goal of monastic life is to encourage the progress of each individual, and even perhaps the visit of the Spouse and entry into the Kingdom.

These rules are not sad. Joy is often mentioned, and the assurance that the monk will find joy in putting them into practice. This is a witness of the spiritual experience of their authors.

3. EVOLUTION

What is interesting in this Gallic monasticism is that it is at the root of monastic life in the Middle Ages as it was lived by by the Cluniacs and Cistercians. But there were obviously several developments in the course of the centuries:

• The original communities were largely made up of lay people, later they became communities with a predominance of clergy.
• In the early stages, monastic life was characterised by prayer and work. The liturgical element was often very simple and of no great importance. Gradually there developed a daily cycle of Hours in which Solemn Mass took first place.
• To begin with, the monastic life was a call by God to an individual. Later, although the call might still be present, monastic life was seen all too often as a profession like many other, with a role in society.
• The obligation of strict enclosure, a characteristic trait of contemplative life for women, makes it first appearance with Cesarius and will be intensified in the West right up to the time of Vatican II.

About the same time, parallel to monasticism in Provence, there developed in what is now the British Isles and Ireland a Celtic monasticism, one of whose characteristics was to seed itself abroad thus gaining considerable influence.

A little before 450, Roman Britain was invaded by the Anglo-Saxons who established themselves in the East of the country, pushing back the Roman-Celtic population towards the West, with the consequence that Christianity developed in Cornwall and Wales. A Church with very special characteristics appeared; so that one can speak of a Celtic Church. This was in effect relatively isolated with its own usages: a special tonsure for priests, a different date for Easter, but above all monasticism developed remarkably with a profusion of hermitages, and monasteries sometimes housing more than a thousand monks.

This Celtic monasticism had some special characteristics.

• First, although elsewhere the episcopal church was the central point of religious organisation, here, almost exclusively, it was the monastery which filled this role.
• Asceticism was very rigorous; it seems exaggerated to us. We find feats like those of the Egyptian desert and Syria, yet in different surroundings and climate; prolonged fasts and various mortifications taken to the limits in defiance of nature; for example, immersion in an icy pool took the place of exposure to the sun of the hypaitae and stylites. Here too there were impetuous souls who went to extremes.

Some of these special characteristics of Celtic monasticism had an influence on Latin Christianity:

• The implantation of Christianity in Ireland gave rise to a Latin culture of Christian inspiration, so much so that later this culture spread over the European continent which had been almost completely reduced to barbarism; it would be one of the principal centres nurturing the Carolingian renaissance.
• Sacramental penance in a private and repeated form developed widely in the Irish monasteries, while elsewhere it did not go beyond an embryonic form. A strange literature grew out of it: the penitentiaries which laid down the penances for each fault, according to its gravity and the degree of culpability. The penances of these rituals, which seem very rigorous to us, corresponded to a strongly felt pastoral need. In this way Latin Catholicism inherited from Ireland one of the most characteristic aspects of its piety: frequent confession accompanied by spiritual direction.

One of the ascetical practices dear to the Celtic monks was voluntary exile, the peregrinatio pro Christo or pro amore Dei. That these peoples may have had a taste for adventure or some psychological instability which drew them to this form of asceticism does not lessen its significance; they left their beloved homeland where they lived in security to go and live in unknown and perhaps hostile surroundings. In any case this religious movement knew an astonishing popularity and was particularly fruitful; Columban's monks populated Gaul and even Italy, while the Irish evangelised the islands right up to the north of Scotland.

It is not certain that St Patrick was a monk. The sources which connect him with St Germain of

Auxerre and even make him a monk with Martin at Tours, or claim that he was formed at Lerins, are very late. The writings of Patrick tell us nothing, indeed they give us the impression that he received his formation in Britain and not in Gaul. It is very probable that before becoming a bishop, he practised a form of ascetic life, either alone or with a group. In any case the apostle of the Irish had an imposing monastic posterity. He makes several allusions to the monks and nuns whom he established in Ireland.

Patrick himself wrote his life in simple language, showing us a truly humble man, grateful for the graces he received from God and full of mistrust of himself, yet able to make important decisions; a mark of true humility.

He was probably born in what used to be called Cumberland (now Cumbria) near Scotland, to which the Anglo-Saxons had driven the Celtic population. He tells us of his childhood in Britain: born of a Christian family, he was carried off to Ireland in a raid by pirates (Text 1). He spent nearly six years in slavery, (Text 2) then escaped and returned home. He felt called by God to go and evangelise Ireland (Text 3). He was consecrated bishop, and his apostolate must have covered the years between 432-461, the date of his death.

We quote two passages from his 'Confession' which give us an insight into his humility and his awareness of the greatness, love and fatherly Providence of God. (Texts 4 & 5).

Another monk even before the time of Patrick was St NINIAN, 362-432, of Roman-British stock, who visited Rome and spent some time with St Martin. He founded the monastery called 'Candida-Casa' in south-west Scotland at Whithorn. One of the monks of this monastery, ENDA, founded the first monastery in the Aran Islands off the west coast of Ireland, about 520. Other saints who made other monasteries famous were St FINNIAN of Clonard (470-549), St BRIGID of Kildare (d. 523), St CIARAN of Clonmacnois and St COEMGEN of Glendalough. Later St COLUMBA (Columcille 521-597), having founded several monasteries in Ireland, left his homeland to go and found a monastery on the tiny island of Iona on the west coast of Scotland which became a centre of envangelisation (about 563). Still later, about 650, St AIDAN founded the no less famous monastery of Lindisfarne on the islet off Northumberland from where the Gospel spread among the Anglo-Saxons, who had conquered Britain

The life of St Columban has come to us from one JONAS, who was born in Italy and entered the foundation of Columban at Bobbio. He wrote the life about 25 years after the death of the saint, but as a confidant of abbot Attale, the saint's successor, he knew what he recounted.

Columban came from West Leinster in Ireland. He began by living with a holy man called Sinell, then he entered the monastery of Bangor, led at the time by abbot Comgall. After having stayed there for some years, he felt the call to leave his homeland on the peregrinatio pro Christo which we have already mentioned. According to Jonas, he was 20 when he left his country and set out for Gaul. He came to Burgundy where Gontran was king, and founded three monasteries quite near each other: Annegray, Luxeuil and Fontaine. The second of these experienced a rapid development and became famous. It was here that Columban wrote his Rules and his Penitentiary, of truly Irish severity. Crowds came to him, and he exercised a great influence.

But after 20 years, his moral intransigence led him to reproach the king and incur his anger and that of the king's grandmother, the terrible Brunhaut. They chased him out of Burgundy and wanted him to go back to his own country, but at the moment of boarding the ship at Nantes he escaped and went to the country of the Moselle and the Rhine, stirred up enthusiasm and encouraged vocations which gave rise to many monasteries. He spread the Gospel among the many pagans in German lands, particularly in the present Alsace and Switzerland, so far barely touched by missionaries. Then Columban continued his peregrinatio pro Christo; he crossed the Alps and went into Italy where he founded the monastery of Bobbio in the Apennines. He died there in 615.

Columban has left a Penitentiary, a collection of penalties for faults committed; most of them concern the clerics and the laity, but the beginning and the end concern monks. We also have his Conventual Rule which too only contains penalties. On the other hand his Rule for Monks is his richest writing which deals mostly with the great monastic virtues.

The Rule for Monks is as it were the heart of Columbanian monasticism. It was inspired by other monastic authors whom we have studied, notably Cassian and also Benedict. The first chapter deals with obedience, which is primordial (Text 1). Christ is the model of obedience. Before this chapter on obedience we read several words which show that the principal aim of the Rule is to learn to love God and one's neighbour. This journey towards love is made, as in Cassian, by the stripping and purification of the vices, so as to arrive at continual prayer (Text 2). In the penances inherent in monastic life, Columban affirms the need for discretion (Texts 3 & 4). Virginity of body is of no value if one is not virgin in one's heart (Text 5). Though he asks great mortifications of his monks, Columban is sure that love will make them bearable (Text 6). They will lead the monk to humility which finds the yoke of the Lord sweet (Text 7). There is then an evangelical flavour to this Rule for Monks.

Early Monastic Rules. The Liturgical Press 1982

Monastic Studies 12: The Rule of the Four Fathers; The Second Rule of the Fathers.

Monastic Studies 13: The Regula Orientalis

Cuming G.J.: Mission of the Church and Propagation of the Faith. cf.: Chapter: St Columban: Monk & MIssionary. C.U.P.

Monastic Studies 14: Celtic Studies

Cerebelaud-Salagnac, G & B. Ireland, Isle of Saints. Burns & Oates

12. WESTERN MONASTICISM

1) Which monasteries were founded by St Martin? What was the chief characteristic of his spirituality, taking into account the kind of man he was?

2) What are the names of the Fathers of the Jura whom history has recorded for us?

3) Who were the people who influenced the beginnings of monasticism at Lerins?

4 Which Mother-Rules do the Gallic Rules derive from? How does this monasticism develop in the centuries to come (call - clergy/laity - divine office - enclosure for nuns)?

5) Who was the man who began monastic life in Iberia? Which Mother-Rules inspired him?

6) What are the special characteristics of Celtic monasticism? Have some come down to us?

7) Which country did St Patrick evangelise? Give the names of two famous monasteries founded by his spiritual sons.

8)Where did St Columban come from? In which country did he go on a peregrinatio pro Christo? Give the names of the monasteries which he founded

9) Following the texts of the Rule for monks of St Columban which are given in the Course, write down the chief characteristics of his spirituality.

12. WESTERN MONASTICISM & BENEDICT

Here are a few more texts from the Western Rules written before St Benedict; there are traces of them in the Rule. Underline the ideas that have passed into the Rule of St Benedict. A space is left at the end of each text for you to write the number of the chapter in the Rule where this has occurred. Note the principal differences if there are any.

To avoid having to search through the whole Rule, the passages concerned can be found at the bottom of the next page. But be careful, because, as in the other study papers on the Rule, a single chapter of the Rule of Benedict may contain several references, and vice-versa.

1.

Rule of the Four Fathers: 2: 5-7.

The superior should lift the souls of his brothers from earthly to spiritual things, as the Apostle says: "Reprove, entreat, rebuke with all gentleness", and elsewhere: "What do you want? Shall I come to you with a rod or in a spirit of gentleness?".

The one who presides must discern how he may show kindness to each one, and how he must preserve equality.

2.

Idem: 2: 10

When the brothers are gathered for prayer, no one should presume to give out a psalm without an order from the one who presides. The following should be observed: no one in the monastery should presume to take precedence of someone older than he in the choir or in singing the psalms, as Solomon said: "My son, do not seek the first place".

3.

Idem: 2: 25-28

When a man wishes to free himself from the darkness of this world, let him begin by going to the monastery and lying at the gate for a week. Let none of the brothers associate with him, and let him be told the hard and laborious things. If he perseveres in knocking, let entrance not be denied to him who asks, but the one who presides should instruct him how to observe the life of the brothers and the rule.

4.

Idem: 3: 26-30

The one who has charge of the provisions of the brothers must be careful so that he may hear: "He who has served well gains an honourable place". The brothers too ought to know that whatever is used in the monastery, whether vessels or tools or anything else, all of them are holy. If anyone has used something negligently, he should realise that he is like the king who drank with his mistresses from the sacred vessels in the house of God, and that he deserves the same punishment.

5.

Macarius 14

At the hour of prayer, when the signal has been given, he who does not immediately abandon all that he is doing and make haste, should be kept outside so that he may be ashamed, for nothing must be put before prayer.

6.

Idem: 23, 24

If someone wants to leave the world for the monastery, let the rule be read to him when he enters and all the customs of the monastery explained. If he accepts everything in the right way let him be received by the brothers in a fitting manner in the community.... If he gave something to the poor beforehand or brought something for the brothers when he came to the community, even so, it is no longer permissible for him to have anything for his own use

7.

Regula Orientalis 32

When a fault is discovered, let him who is found guilty be corrected by the abbot in private. If this is not enough for his amendment, let him be reproved by a few elders. If he does not amend, let him be chastised in front of everyone. If even then he does not amend, let him be excommunicated and let him not eat anything.

8.

Cesarius - To monks 1

In the first place, if anyone comes to be a monk, let him be received in the monastery, on condition that he persevere until death.

9.

Idem: 4-7

Whoever does not wish to sell his possessions, let him draw up deeds of gift in favour of his parents or the monastery, so that he may be free and have nothing of his own. All that he has brought with him must be given to the abbot: he will keep nothing for himself.

10.

Idem: 15

Let no one receive anything secretly; above all let no one receive or send letters without the knowledge of the abbot.

Rule of St Benedict: Prol. 2 - 23 - 31 - 43 - 47 - 54 - 57 - 58

12. WESTERN MONASTICISM

THE RULE OF THE FOUR FATHERS

1: 8-12 We would like the brothers to dwell together in unity and joy. With God's help, let us now lay down how these may be maintained by a right order of things.

We want one person to be the head of all, and that no one deviate in any way from his advice or commands, but obey him joyfully as if it was the command of the Lord.

2:16-35 We shall explain how those who leave the world and are converted should be tested. First the world's riches must be taken from them.

If a poor man is converted, he too has riches which must be taken away. The Holy Spirit describes them when he says through Solomon: "My soul hates a poor man who is proud", and elsewhere: "A proud man is a wounded man". The superior must observe this rule very carefully: if a poor man is converted, he must first open up his burden of pride, and so, having been tested, let him be received. Above all, he must be taught humility, and how great a thing and how acceptable a sacrifice to God not to do his own will but to be ready for anything. Whatever happens, he must remember: "be patient in tribulation". When someone like this wishes to free himself from the darkness of the world, let him begin by going to the monastery and lying before the gate for a week. Let none of the brothers associate with him, and let him be told the hard and laborious things. If he perseveres in knocking, let entrance not be denied to him who asks, but the superior should instruct him how to observe the life of the brothers and the rule.

If he is wealthy, possessing many of the world's riches, and wishes to be converted, he must begin by fulfilling the will of God and following this important precept which was given to the rich young man: "Sell all you possess and give to the poor, and take up your cross and follow me". Then the superior must instruct him to keep nothing for himself but the cross which he must take hold of to follow the Lord. Now this is the full weight of the cross which must be carried: first, not to do his own will but that of another in all obedience. If he wants to give something to the monastery, he should understand the conditions under which he and his offering are accepted. If on the other hand he wants to have some of his slaves with him, he must understand that they are no longer his slaves but his brothers, so that he may be perfect in every way.

THE RULE OF MACARIUS

1. The soldiers of Christ must order their steps in the following way: by keeping the most perfect charity among themselves, "to love God with all their soul, with all their mind, with all their heart and all their strength".

2. Let them practise the most perfect obedience to each other, and be peace-loving, gentle, moderate, not proud, not insulting, not murmurers, not mockers, not talkative, not presumptuous; not pleasing themselves but Christ whose soldiers they are; not falling into blasphemy or contradicting anyone; never tardy in service, ready for prayer, perfect in humility, girded with obedience, diligent in vigil, joyful in fasting.

3. Let no one consider himself more just than than another, but let each one despise himself as inferior to all, for "he who exalts himself will be humbled and he who humbles himself will be exalted".

4. Receive the instruction of an elder as a precept for salvation. Do not murmur about some task. Do not complain about an instruction.

5. Do not boast or flatter yourself that you have done a good piece of work. Do not rejoice in gaining something or be downcast in any loss.

7. Respect the superior of the monastery as God himself, love him as a father. In the same way you should love all the brothers, with whom you expect to find yourself in the glory of Christ.

8. Do not hate arduous work, do not look for the idle moment. Wearied by vigils, drenched in sweat by honest labour and almost asleep as you walk, go to your bed exhausted believing that you rest with Christ.

9. Love the observance of the monastery above all. The one who wishes to pray more often will more surely find the abundant mercy of Christ.

10. After saying matins, let the brothers meditate until the second hour, unless something has to be one in common in which case the meditation is omitted.

11. After the second hour let each one work at his task until the ninth hour, and let him do whatever he has been asked without murmuring, as the holy Apostle teaches.

12. If anyone murmurs or argues or shows ill will in any way with regard to the work given him, after he has been severely reprimanded according to the elder's judgment and the gravity of the fault, let him be excluded for as long as the nature of the fault demands, so that he humbles himself and does penance, and may not fall again.

14. At the hour of prayer, when the signal has been given, he who does not immediately abandon all that he is doing and make haste, should be kept outside so that he may be ashamed, for nothing must be put before prayer.

17. The one who is often corrected and does not amend should be told to take the last place. If he still does not amend, let him be treated like a stranger, as the Lord said: "Let him be to you like a heathen and a tax collector.

18. At table particularly should no one speak, except the superior or whoever is asked.

19. Let no one pride himself on his skill or his voice, but in humility and obedience let him rejoice in the Lord.

20. Practise hospitality in all circumstances and do not avert your eyes leaving the poor man helpless; maybe the Lord will come to you as a guzest or a poor man and seeing you hesitate, will condemn you. Welcome everyone cheerfully and in faith.

21. When injured, keep silent. Never let yourself do an injury, put up with an injury done to you.

23. If someone wants to leave the world for the monastery, let the rule be read to him when he enters and all the customs of the monastery explained. If he accepts everything in the right spirit let him be received by the brothers in a fitting manner in the community.

24. If he wants to bring something into the community, let it be put on the altar in the presence of all the brothers as the rule prescribes. If his offering is accepted, from that moment not only his property which he brought but even his own self will not be at his disposal. If he gave something to the poor beforehand or brought something for the brothers when he came to the community, even so, it is no longer permissible for him to have anything for his own use.

26. If a brother commits a fault for any reason, let him be suspended from the prayer and undergo a strict fast. If he asks pardon prostrate before all the brothers, let him be forgiven.

27. But if he perseveres in his wicked pride and says: "I cannot put up with this, I will take my cloak and go where I like". then let the brother who first heard him say this go and tell the prior and the prior tell the abbot. Let the abbot take his seat in the presence of all the brethren and order him to be brought. After he has been corrected by a beating, let a prayer be said and then let him be received in communion. Those who cannot be corrected by sound teaching must be healed by a beating.

28. If it happens that a brother wants to leave the monastery because of some quarrel, let him wear nothing but the most tattered clothes and leave the community as a faithless person. For the gentle and peaceful lay hold of the heavenly kingdom; they shall be numbered among the sons of the Most High and shall receive precious and splendid crowns. But the sons of darkness shall go into outer darkness. "Upon whom shall I rest, says the Lord, if not the humble and tranquil man who reverences my words?"

THE REGULA ORIENTALIS

1. In order that the elders do not labour in vain in governing the brothers, nor the discipline of the juniors weaken, dependent as this is on the abbot's own monastic observance, the abbot must for his part be irreproachable, severe, patient, one who fasts, pious and humble, so that he may fill the role of teacher and father and give an example of the beauty of good works. Let all the brothers be under his jurisdiction and do nothing without his advice and authority.

He cares for all the needs of the monastery, and is free to make decisions in everything connected with the monastery, showing no preferences or favouring anyone; but advising, encouraging, chastising or condemning each one, judging him in truth according to the merits of his daily way of life. Let him receive those who come to the monastery, and expel those who behave badly if it seems necessary.

Next it speaks of the different officials: 2. two elders; 3. the prior (praepositus); 25. the cellarer;

26. the porter. Then come chapter 27 on the reception of brethren, and 28 on the weekly servers.

30. All the brothers will observe the following: obeying their elders and deferring to one another, they will have patience, moderation, humility, charity and peace, without dissimulation, lying, evil words, gossip or the habit of swearing. Let no one lay claim to anything or take it for his own use, but let them hold everything in common.

32. When a fault is discovered, let him who is found guilty be corrected by the abbot in private. If this is not enough for his amendment, let him be reproved by a few elders. If he does not amend, let him be chastised in front of everyone. If even then he does not amend, let him be excommunicated and let him not eat anything. If even this does not help him, let him be placed last, in the order of psalmody, whatever his rank. If he persists in his perversity, let him not be allowed to sing the psalms. If this humiliation has no effect, let him be kept away from the community of brothers, forbidden both the table and the office, nor let any junior brother talk to him. He will be kept apart for as long as the nature of the fault demands, according to the judgment of the abbot and elders, or until he humbles himself, doing penance for his fault from his heart, and asks pardon for his error in the presence of all. If he has offended a brother, let him ask pardon of the brother he has offended.

35. When someone is so hardened and estranged from the fear of God that he does not amend after so many chastisements and so many pardons, let him be cast out of the monastery and treated as a stranger, lest others be endangered by his vice.

RULES OF CESARIUS

For Virgins

2. In the first place, this is what is most suitable for your holy souls: If someone wishes to leave her parents, to renounce the world and enter the sacred fold so that she may, with the help of God, escape the jaws of spiritual wolves, she must never leave the monastery until her death, not even to go to the basilica where the door can be found.

4. When someone is converted through the inspiration of God, she should not receive the religious habit straight away, her will has first to be tested by many trials. Let her be entrusted to a senior for a whole year, keeping the clothes in which she came.

7. No one, not even the abbess, may keep a servant for her personal service. If anyone needs help, let it be given by one of the juniors.

If possible, a small child should only be admitted to the monastery with difficulty or not at all; she should not be received until she is at least six or seven years old and can learn to read and practice obedience.

20. One of the sisters will read until terce, while the others work together. For the rest of the time, let their hearts continue to meditate on the word of God and pray.

May you be one soul and one heart in the Lord.

21. Those who possess something in the world should humbly offer it to the mother when they enter the monastery, so that the community may have the use of it. Those who had nothing should not seek to receive from the monastery what they could not have outside it. But those who had possessions in the world should not show disdain towards their sisters who came to the holy community from poverty.... Let all live together in unanimity and concord and give honour to God in each other, for you have become his temple.

22. When you pray to God with psalms and hymns, may the words on your lips be also in your hearts. Whatever work you are doing, when there is no reading, ponder continually on the divine Scriptures.

23. Let none of you, led on by the devil, cast longing glances at any man; neither claim to have a modest soul if your eyes are immodest, for the immodest eye is the messenger of the immodest heart... Let us concede that the culprit may not be seen by anyone else; yet what will she do in the sight of heaven from whose gaze she can never hide?

SAINT PATRICK

1. Confession 1

I am Patrick, a sinner, a real bumpkin and the least of all the faithful, regarded by many people as utterly contemptible. My father was the deacon Calpornius, son of the priest Potitus who lived in the hamlet of Bannavem Taburniae. He had a dwelling in the country nearby, and it was there I was captured. I was then sixteen years old. I did not know the true God. I was taken into captivity in Ireland...

Then the Lord opened the understanding of my unbelieving heart so that I might at last remember my sins, and turn with all my heart to the Lord my God who looked upon my lowliness, and took pity on my youth and my ignorance. He watched over me before I knew him and before I knew how to distinguish between good and evil, he strengthened and consoled me as a father consoles his son.

2. Confession 16-17

Every day I took the sheep to graze and I prayed often during the day. The love of God and his fear took hold of me more and more, my faith grew. My spirit was led to make about a hundred prayers in a single day and nearly as many in the night; I lived in the forests and on the mountain, I rose before daybreak to pray, whether in snow, hail or rain. I never came to any harm and I was not lazy for at that time the spirit was full of fervour.

And there one night when I was asleep I heard a voice which said to me: "You do well to fast, soon you will return to your homeland.

3. Confession 23

After a few years I was again in Britain with my parents who welcomed me like a son. They begged me not to leave them and go elsewhere after all the hardships I had endured. It was there that "I saw a vision in the night" of a man called Victoricus who seemed to come from Ireland with innumerable letters; he gave me one and I read the beginning of the letter which said: "The call of the Irish". And while I read the letter, I believed I heard at that moment the call of those who lived by the forest of Voclut near the Western sea. This is what they cried out with one voice: "Holy boy, we pray you come and walk with us once more". I was deeply moved in my heart and was not able to continue reading; and so I awoke. Thanks be to God, after many years the Lord heard their cry.

4. Confession 35-36; 38

It would take too long to recount every one of my labours, or even part of them. I will briefly tell how the good God often freed me from slavery and the twelve dangers which threatened my life, not counting the many plots which I cannot put into words, for I do not want to bore my readers. But God, who "knows everything before it happens" is my witness of the many times a divine voice gave me warning, poor wretch that I am.

How did this wisdom come to me? t was not mine as "I did not even know the number of my days" and was ignorant of God. And later, from where did so great and so salutary a gift come, that I should know God and love him, even leaving my homeland and my parents?

Yes, I owe so much to God who gave me so great a grace that through me many people were born again in God and then received confirmation. Clergy were ordained for them everywhere for these people coming to the faith whom God took from the ends ofthe earth, as he once promised by his prophets.

5. Confession 55, 57

I find that even in the present time the Lord has exalted me beyond measure; I was not worthy nor a suitable person for such a thing, for I am sure that poverty and misfortune are better for me than riches and pleasure. Each day I expect to be killed, ambushed, captured or anything else, but because of the promises of heaven, "I fear none of these things". As the prophet says: "I cast all my care upon the Lord and he will care for me", I have cast myself into the hands of God Almighty who rules in every place.

How can I give him anything for all he has done for me? What can I say or what can I promise my Lord, as I can do nothing without his gift? May he search my heart and my innermost being, for I desire him so much, and I was ready should hegive me his chalice to drink, as he has given to others who love him.

SAINT COLUMBAN

1. Rule for Monks 1 Obedience

At the first word from a senior, all those who hear it should rise to obey, for obedience is offered to God, as our Lord Jesus Christ said: "Who hears you hears me".

Whoever contradicts falls into the sin of revolt, and thus he is not only guilty of disobedience, but even more, having launched others on the path of confrontation, he will be responsible for their ruin.

If anyone murmurs, even though he obeys in spite of it, he too should be accused of disobedience. His work should be refused, until he shows his good will.

On the other hand, how far may one go in obedience? There is no doubt that we should go even as far as death, for Christ obeyed the Father on our behalf even unto death.

2. Rule for monks, 4, Poverty

To strip onself and despise riches is the first perfect work of the monk. The second is the purification of vices. The third and foremost perfection is continual love of God and continual love of divine things which follows on the forgetfulness of earthly things,

3. Rule for monks 3 Food

Let the monk's food be plain, taken in the evening, avoiding overeating and drunkenness. Thus may he keep body and soul together without further harm.

Indeed, whoever desires eternal recompense must be very careful in using what is helpful and advantageous. That is why one must use whatever serves our life in moderation, so work should be moderate, for true discernment consists in safeguarding the possibility of spiritual progress, while checking the flesh with abstinence. Indeed, if abstinence goes too far, it is a vice and not a virtue, for virtue holds and strengthens many good things.

4. Rule for monks 8 Discretion

The straying of many shows that discretion is needful for monks, and the ruin of some proves it. They began without discretion, and without sufficient understanding to guide them, they have been incapable of leading a praiseworthy life to the end. To go beyond the measure is to meet certain danger, since our adversaries place stumbling blocks of evil and obstacles of every kind of error along the right path of discretion. So one must pray to God continually to give the light of true discretion to enlighten this road bordered as it is on each side with the thick darkness of the world, in such a way that his true adorers may be able to pass through this darkness without straying and so come to him.

Discretion takes its name from 'to discern' for it discerns within us between good and evil, and also between means and goal.

5. Rule for monks 6 Chastity

What use is it to be virginal in body if one is not so in soul?. God is spirit and he dwells in the spirit and heart which he finds untarnished, in which there is no adulterous thought, no stain of the impure spirit, no taint of sin.

6. Rule for monks 9 Mortification

The most important part of the rule for monks is mortification. Scripture enjoins it: "Do nothing without counsel". If then one must do nothing without counsel, one should seek it on all occasions.

But although this discipline seems hard to hard hearts, knowing that a man always depends on the word of another, it will nevertheless be found sweet and secure by those who fear God, if they observe in completely and not partially, for nothing is sweeter than security of conscience and nothing is more secure than a soul without reproach. This is something which no one can obtain by himself, for it truly comes from the judgement of others.

7. Rule for monks 9 Mortification

If monks have not learnt the humility of Christ, they will not taste the sweetness of his yoke, nor the lightness of his burden. Humility of heart is in fact the rest of the tired soul from its vices and difficulties, and its only solace in the midst of so many evils. The more they are drawn far from anything exterior, passing and vain by this consideration, the more theyfind rest and solace within. So too that which was bitter to him becomes pleasant, what before seemed hard and arduous he now finds natural and easy. Mortification itself, which is intolerable to the proud and hard of heart, become a consolation for him who delights in humility and gentleness.

12. WESTERN MONASTICISM